ويكيبيديا

مستخدم:محمد 19951/ملعب9

Prehistory

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[1]

[1]

Prehistoric Egypt

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[2][3][4][5]

Biogeographic origin based on cultural data

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[6][7][8][9]

[10][11][12][13][14][15]

[16][17][18][19]

DNA studies

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[20][21][22][23][24]

[25]

Anthropometric indicators

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Craniofacial criteria

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An Ancient Egyptian skull, thought to be that of Akhenaten.

[26][27][28][29][30]

[31][32][33][34][35]

[31][36][37]

Modern and ancient Egyptians

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[38]

[38]

[38]

[38]

«"There is now a sufficient body of evidence from modern studies of skeletal remains to indicate that the ancient Egyptians, especially southern Egyptians, exhibited physical characteristics that are within the range of variation for ancient and modern indigenous peoples of the Sub Sahara and tropical Africa. In general, the inhabitants of Upper Egypt and Nubia had the greatest biological affinity to people of the Sahara and more southerly areas." "must be placed in the context of hypotheses informed by archaeological, linguistic, geographic and other data. In such contexts, the physical anthropological evidence indicates that early Nile Valley populations can be identified as part of an African lineage, but exhibiting local variation. This variation represents the short- and long-term effects of evolutionary forces, such as gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection, influenced by culture and geography."[39]»

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

Limb ratios

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[45][46]

[47][48][49]

[50][51]

«Our results confirm that, although ancient Egyptians are closer in body proportion to modern American Blacks than they are to American Whites, proportions in Blacks and Egyptians are not identical. »

Dental morphology

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[52][53]

[54]

«[The Egyptian] samples [of 996 mummies] exhibit morphologically simple, mass-reduced dentitions that are similar to those in populations from greater North Africa (Irish, 1993, 1998a–c, 2000) and, to a lesser extent, western Asia and Europe (Turner, 1985a; Turner and Markowitz, 1990; Roler, 1992; Lipschultz, 1996; Irish, 1998a).[55]»

[56]

Language element

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The Edwin Smith papyrus, the world's oldest surviving surgical document. Written in Hieratic script in Ancient Egypt around 1600 B.C.

[57]

Origins

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[58][59][60][61][62][63][64]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ ا ب Ancient Egyptian Origins
  2. ^ Bogucki، Peter I. (1999). The origins of human society. Wiley-Blackwell. ص. 355. ISBN:1-57718-112-3.
  3. ^ Josef Eiwanger: Merimde Beni-salame, In: Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Compiled and edited by Kathryn A. Bard. London/New York 1999, p. 501-505
  4. ^ Jürgen Seeher. Ma'adi and Wadi Digla. in: Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Compiled and edited by Kathryn A. Bard. London/New York 1999, 455-458
  5. ^ Brace, 1993. Clines and clusters
  6. ^ Hoffman. "Egypt before the pharaohs: the prehistoric foundations of Egyptian civilization", pp267
  7. ^ Redford, Egypt, Israel, p. 17.
  8. ^ Edwin C. M et. al, "Egypt and the Levant", pp514
  9. ^ Toby A.H. Wilkinson. "Early Dynastic Egypt: Strategies, Society and Security", pp.15
  10. ^ Hunting for the Elusive Nubian A-Group People - by Maria Gatto, archaeology.org
  11. ^ "Egypt and Sub-Saharan Africa: Their Interaction" - Encyclopedia of Precolonial Africa, by Joseph O. Vogel, AltaMira Press, (1997), pp. 465-472
  12. ^ Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 46, No. 1 (Jan., 1987), pp. 15-26
  13. ^ African Origin of Civilization, by Cheikh Diop
  14. ^ Tracy L. Prowse, Nancy C. Lovell. Concordance of cranial and dental morphological traits and evidence for endogamy in ancient Egypt, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Vol. 101, Issue 2, October 1996, Pages: 237-246
  15. ^ Wegner, J. W. 1996. Interaction between the Nubian A-Group and Predynastic Egypt: The Significance of the Qustul Incense Burner. In T. Celenko, Ed., Egypt in Africa: 98-100. Indianapolis: Indianapolis Museum of Art/Indiana University Press.
  16. ^ Genesis of the Pharaohs: Genesis of the ‘Ka’ and Crowns?] - Review by Timothy Kendall, American Archaeologist
  17. ^ http://www.comp-archaeology.org/WendorfSAA98.html
  18. ^ Ancient Astronomy in Africa
  19. ^ Wendorf، Fred (2001). Holocene Settlement of the Egyptian Sahara. Springer. ص. 525. ISBN:0-306-46612-0.
  20. ^ Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt By Kathryn A. Bard, Steven Blake Shubert pp 278-279
  21. ^ Keita، S. O. Y.؛ Boyce، A. J. (2005). "Genetics, Egypt, and History: Interpreting Geographical Patterns of Y Chromosome Variation". History in Africa. ج. 32 ع. 1: 221–246. DOI:10.1353/hia.2005.0013.
  22. ^ Keita، S. O. Y. (2005). "Y-Chromosome Variation in Egypt". African Archaeological Review. ج. 22 ع. 2: 61–75. DOI:10.1007/s10437-005-4189-4.
  23. ^ Keita، S. O. Y. (2005). "History in the Interpretation of the Pattern of p49a,f TaqI RFLP Y-Chromosome Variation in Egypt". American Journal of Human Biology. ج. 17 ع. 5: 559–67. DOI:10.1002/ajhb.20428. PMID:16136533.
  24. ^ Shomarka Keita: What genetics can tell us
  25. ^ Schuenemann، Verena؛ Peltzer، Alexander؛ Welte، Beatrix (30 مايو 2017). "Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods". Nature Communications. DOI:10.1038/ncomms15694.
  26. ^ Boas (1912). "Changes in Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants". American Anthropologist. ج. 14: 530–562. DOI:10.1525/aa.1912.14.3.02a00080.
  27. ^ http://www.anthro.fsu.edu/people/faculty/CG_pubs/gravlee03b.pdf
  28. ^ Gravlee، Clarence C.؛ Bernard، H. Russell؛ Leonard، William R. (2003). "Heredity, Environment, and Cranial Form: A Re-Analysis of Boas's Immigrant Data". American Anthropologist. ج. 105 ع. 1: 123–136. DOI:10.1525/aa.2003.105.1.125.
  29. ^ How Caucasoids Got Such Big Crania and How They Shrank, by Leonard Lieberman
  30. ^ Forensic Misclassification of Ancient Nubian Crania: Implications for Assumptions about Human Variation
  31. ^ ا ب Brace et al., 'Clines and clusters versus "race"' (1993)
  32. ^ von Cramon-Taubadel، N (2011). "The relative efficacy of functional and developmental cranial modules for reconstructing global human population history". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. ج. 146: 83–93. DOI:10.1002/ajpa.21550. PMID:21710659.
  33. ^ von Cramon-Taubadel، N.؛ Lycett، SJ. (2008). "Human cranial variation fits iterative founder effect model with African origin". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. ج. 136: 108–113. DOI:10.1002/ajpa.20775. PMID:18161847.
  34. ^ von Cramon-Taubadel، N (2009a). "Congruence of individual cranial bone morphology and neutral molecular affinity patterns in modern humans". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. ج. 140: 205–215. DOI:10.1002/ajpa.21041.
  35. ^ Wilkinson، Caroline (2004). Forensic Facial Reconstruction. Cambridge University Press. ص. 84. ISBN:0521820030. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2015-06-02.
  36. ^ "The races of man: an outline of anthropology and ethnography", by Joseph Deniker, pg 432
  37. ^ "Papers on inter-racial problems", by Gustav Spiller, pg 24
  38. ^ ا ب ج د Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilisation, by Barry J. Kemp, Routledge, 07 May 2007, pages 46-58
  39. ^ Nancy C. Lovell, " Egyptians, physical anthropology of," in Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt, ed. Kathryn A. Bard and Steven Blake Shubert, ( London and New York: Routledge, 1999). pp 328-332
  40. ^ Frank Yurco, "An Egyptological Review" in Mary R. Lefkowitz and Guy MacLean Rogers, eds. Black Athena Revisited. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996. pp. 62–100
  41. ^ S.O.Y. Keita (2005)، S. O. Y. (2005). "Early Nile Valley Farmers, From El-Badari, Aboriginals or "European" Agro-Nostratic Immigrants? Craniometric Affinities Considered With Other Data". Journal of Black Studies. ج. 36 ع. 2: 191–208. DOI:10.1177/0021934704265912.{{استشهاد بدورية محكمة}}: صيانة الاستشهاد: أسماء عددية: قائمة المؤلفين (link)
  42. ^ Zakrzewski, Sonia "Population Continuity or Population Change:Formation of the Ancient Egyptian State" AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 132:501–509 (2007)
  43. ^ Keita, S.O.Y. "Temporal Variation in Phenetic Affinity of Early Upper Egyptian Male Cranial Series", Human Biology, Volume 80, Number 2 (2008)
  44. ^ Terrazas Mata, A. Serrano Sánchez, C. and Benavente, M. (2013). "The Late Peopling of Africa According to Craniometric Data. A Comparison of Genetic and Linguistic Models" (PDF). Human Evolution ع. 1–2: 1–12. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2017-03-27.{{استشهاد بدورية محكمة}}: صيانة الاستشهاد: أسماء متعددة: قائمة المؤلفين (link)
  45. ^ Brace CL, Tracer DP, Yaroch LA, Robb J, Brandt K, Nelson AR (1993). Clines and clusters versus "race:" a test in ancient Egypt and the case of a death on the Nile. Yrbk Phys Anthropol 36:1–31'.
  46. ^ Predynastic egyptian stature and physical proportions - Robins, Gay. Human Evolution, Volume 1, Number 4 / August 1986
  47. ^ Keita، S.O.Y. (1993). "Studies and Comments of Ancient Egyptian Biological Relationships". History in Africa. ج. 20: 129–154. DOI:10.2307/3171969.
  48. ^ Gallagher et al. "Population continuity, demic diffusion and Neolithic origins in central-southern Germany: The evidence from body proportions.", Homo. Mar 3 (2009)
  49. ^ Zakrzewski، Sonia R. (2003). "Variation in Ancient Egyptian Stature and Body Proportions". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. ج. 121 ع. 3: 219–29. DOI:10.1002/ajpa.10223. PMID:12772210.
  50. ^ S.O.Y. Keita, History in Africa, 20: 129-154 (1993)
  51. ^ Raxter et al. "Stature estimation in ancient Egyptians: A new technique based on anatomical reconstruction of stature" (2008).
  52. ^ Irish، J.D. (1998). "Diachronic and synchronic dental trait affinities of late and post-pleistocene peoples from North Africa". Homo. ج. 49 ع. 2: 138–155.
  53. ^ Hanihara، T؛ Ishida، H (2005). "Metric dental variation of major human populations". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. ج. 128 ع. 2: 287–298. DOI:10.1002/ajpa.20080.
  54. ^ Irish، J. D.؛ Konigsberg، L. (2007). "The ancient inhabitants of Jebel Moya redux: measures of population affinity based on dental morphology" (PDF). International Journal of Osteoarchaeology. ج. 17 ع. 2: 138–156. DOI:10.1002/oa.868.
  55. ^ Irish pp. 10-11
  56. ^ S.O.Y. Keita، S. O. Y. (1995). "Studies and Comments on Ancient Egyptian Biological Relationships". International Journal of Anthropology. ج. 10 ع. 2–3: 107–123. DOI:10.1007/BF02444602.
  57. ^ Bard، Kathryn A.؛ Steven Blake Shubert (1999). Encyclopedia of the archaeology of ancient Egypt. Routledge. ص. 274. ISBN:0-415-18589-0.
  58. ^ Blench R (2006) Archaeology, Language, and the African Past, Rowman Altamira, (ردمك 0-7591-0466-2), (ردمك 978-0-7591-0466-2), https://books.google.com/books?id=esFy3Po57A8C
  59. ^ Ehret، C؛ Keita، SOY؛ Newman، P (2004). "The Origins of Afroasiatic a response to Diamond and Bellwood (2003)". Science. ج. 306 ع. 5702: 1680. DOI:10.1126/science.306.5702.1680c. PMID:15576591.
  60. ^ Bernal M (1987) Black Athena: the Afroasiatic roots of classical civilization, Rutgers University Press, (ردمك 0-8135-3655-3), (ردمك 978-0-8135-3655-2). https://books.google.com/books?id=yFLm_M_OdK4C
  61. ^ Bender ML (1997), Upside Down Afrasian, Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere 50, pp. 19-34
  62. ^ Militarev A (2005) Once more about glottochronology and comparative method: the Omotic-Afrasian case, Аспекты компаративистики - 1 (Aspects of comparative linguistics - 1). FS S. Starostin. Orientalia et Classica II (Moscow), p. 339-408. http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/fleming.pdf
  63. ^ http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=2752-16
  64. ^ http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=52-16

Further reading

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  • Morant، G. M. (1925). "A study of Egyptian craniology from prehistoric to Roman times". Biometrika. Biometrika. ج. 17 ع. 1/2: 1–52. DOI:10.2307/2332021. JSTOR:2332021.
  • MacIver (1905). "chapter 9". The Ancient Races of the Thebaid. {{استشهاد بكتاب}}: الوسيط غير المعروف |chapterurl= تم تجاهله يقترح استخدام |مسار الفصل= (مساعدة) وروابط خارجية في |chapterurl= (مساعدة)
  • Strouhal، Eugen (1971). "Evidence of the Early Penetration of Negroes into Prehistoric Egypt". Journal of African History. Cambridge University Press. ج. 12 ع. 1: 1–9. DOI:10.1017/S0021853700000037. JSTOR:180563.
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